=The Signal Station_
+x\s-000– ... "The history of war teems with occasions where the interception of dispatches and orders written in plain language has resulted in defeat and disaster for the force whose intentions thus became known at once to the enemy. For this reason, prudent generals have used cipher and code messages from time immemorial. The necessity for exact expression of ideas practically excludes the use of codes for military work although it is possible that a special tactical code might be useful for preparation of tactical orders" ...
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+ Locations of Stations-...
In field operations tactical considerations will usually prescribe within certain limits the number and general location of signal stations. The general directions for deployment being given, the signalman will be called upon to demonstrate his skill in the selection of particular locations most conducive to the efficient service of information.
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>> General Considerations - 01_
Considering all things, the best location for a signal station is one which affords maximum visibility and at the same time minimum exposure to hostile observation. These conditions, apparently paradoxical, can be more or less reconciled by the exercise of ingenuity on the part of the signalist. A good theoretical knowledge of the special requisites of signal sites, together with the ability to apply it to the conditions arising in any given case, will result in securing the best obtainable locations.
The first essential of the signal station is visibility, the second being that of concealment from hostile observation. In acquiring a mean between conflicting requirements, the following special considerations in the selection of stations should be considered.
>> Background of Stations-02_
Backgrounds are important factors in the selection of signaling sites. Sky backgrounds are desirable as affording strong contrast and are therefore conducive to celerity in the transmission of signals. They are rare and can only be secured when stations are located on the exact crest of ridges, on mountain peaks, or on lands which bound the horizon of view from the other stations. Stations with sky backgrounds, while affording the best facilities for transmission, are little adapted to the requirement of secrecy.
Dark backgrounds are far more common and more easily obtainable than sky exposures. They afford the maximum means of concealment from hostile observation, but materially reduce the range, speed, and accuracy of signal transmission. Mixed or broken backgrounds are those which display varied colors behind the signals. Backgrounds of this description do not accord with either of the essential requirements of the signal station and should be avoided whenever possible.
In general, sky backgrounds should always be selected for signal stations when conditions are such that the requirement of secrecy can be dispensed with; if, on the other hand, there is reason to fear that the signals may be intercepted by the enemy, dark backgrounds should invariably be chosen, even though the disadvantages they impose, render them less desirable visually.
>> Azimuth of Stations-03_
The azimuth of signal stations should, if possible, be such that the visual lines of information should intersect the vertical plane through the apparent course of the sun, at a considerable angle. Stations located so as to be unavoidably viewed from these directions during portions of the day are very liable to appear enveloped in a haze, and telescopes, if turned upon them, are filled with dazzling light. If the location of stations on or close to the sun line is unavoidable, sites affording sky exposures should be chosen. Exposures of this kind obviate to a great extent the difficulty of sun haze and should be secured when this difficulty is encountered and it is impracticable to change the azimuth of the station.
>> Altitude of Stations-04_
The location of signal stations at high altitudes will tend to obviate difficulties arising from smoke, haze, and dust. The undulation of the atmosphere noticeable on a hot summer's day is always less at a distance from the earth's surface, and it is often practicable to read signals from a tree or housetop when they would be unintelligible from the ground. This air undulation is less over spots well shaded than those exposed to the glare of the sun, a fact that should be borne in mind in all telescopic examinations. Another reason for locating stations at high altitudes is because the cool night air, the smoke and dust of the day, and heavy mists lie close to the ground, filling the depressions and lowlands, while the higher points remain in view. Stations on high ground are then equally well adapted to day and night signaling. Sites and selections of this kind of terrain will not only often preclude the necessity for changes of location, but also will allow the continuous working of the station when signals made from lower positions would be invisible. In foggy or murky weather peaks and mountain tops are usually enveloped in mist, and under these conditions stations should be situated on lower ground.
>> Position of Stations-05_
The color of the background of a station is that color against which the signals appear to be displayed when viewed from the distant station. Having chosen a point entirely in view of the station or stations to be communicated with, and having fixed the exact position of the signaling apparatus, the color of the background should be determined as carefully as conditions of terrain will permit. If the elevation of the distant station is without doubt greater than that of the home station it is safe to assume that the color of the background will be that of the objects directly around and behind it. On the other hand, if the distant station unquestionably occupies the lower position, a sky exposure will usually result. In locating stations it is very difficult, if not impossible, especially at long ranges, to determine the color of the background as viewed from the distant station when the stations are approximately on the same level. This can only be done by proceeding in front of the home station and taking such a position that it can be viewed with the eye on the line of sight between the stations. The telescope should be established over the initial point of the home stations and directed on the distant station. The observer for background should proceed to a point where his head is in the center of the field of the telescope. Looking back at the home station from this point, the color of the objects about and just behind the initial point will be the color of the background. The correct determination of background color from the vicinity of home stations is usually difficult and unsatisfactory, and it is considered the best method to establish communication with the distant station by simultaneously using several kinds of signaling apparatus, that kind producing the most intelligible signals being retained for continued use.
>> Choice of Apparatus-06_
Sunlight conditions permitting, the heliograph will ordinarily be used for day signaling on account of the advantages of the great range and speed afforded by it. When its use is prohibited by weather conditions, the flag will be substituted for it. The white flag will be used against dark and the red against sky or broken backgrounds. The distant station is the better judge as to which color flag is best suited to given conditions and the color indicated by it should invariably be used. For night signaling, the acetylene lantern is usually employed. Long-range night signaling should be done with the searchlight if available. The employment of the semaphore, in daytime, and the Ardois system, at night, will be confined to more or less permanent stations. Rockets, shells, night fires, etc., are only employed for special or emergency signals.
>> Miscellaneous Considerations-07_
For various reasons stations should not be located at or near camp grounds. These localities usually afford mixed backgrounds, and the presence of dust and smoke and the interference caused by moving bodies of troops and trains will militate against the efficient transmission of signals. Stations located in vicinities of this kind are also subject to annoyance from noise and visits of unauthorized persons. Signal stations should be convenient for messenger service and hence as near commonly traveled roads as the physical contour of the country will permit. Locations for signal stations should be so selected that the visual lines do not cross traveled roads, camps, etc., as dust and smoke in the daytime and lights at night are factors in determining the visibility of signals. Signal stations can if necessary be artificially concealed by erecting screens constructed of limbs of trees, etc., about the flanks and rear. Sheltered positions should be utilized in windy weather.
>> Intervisibility Table-... _
The following table shows the extent of horizon for different heights above the sea level—that is, it shows how far one can see an object which is itself at the level of the sea:
[+ ...] _{{ ^xs_subtracted-table... }}
A formula to determine approximately the limits of visibility from a given height is as follows: The square root of the height of the station in feet multiplied by 1.26 equals the distance in miles at which the signal is visible.
Hence, an observer whose eye is 30 feet above the sea can distinguish an object 7 miles distant, provided it is at the sea level; but if the object is itself 15 feet above the sea he can make it out 7 + 5 = 12 miles off.
+ Finding a Station-...
To find a signalman near any known station, note with the unaided eye some prominent landmark near which the looked-for person or object is supposed to be, and direct the telescope upon the place, as sight is taken over a gun barrel, covering the object; if the eye is now placed at the eyeglass of the telescope, the prominent or directing landmark will be found in the field of view. It will be easy then to scale the country near the marker until the signalman is found. This method is often necessary at night, when only a point of light is seen far off through the darkness, and the telescope must be turned upon it. When the compass bearing of the object sought for is known, the telescope may be aligned by a line drawn with the proper compass bearing. Commencing then with the view at the horizon, the telescope is slowly moved from side to side, taking in fresh fields of view each time a little nearer to the observer, until the whole country shall have been observed from the horizon to quite near the station. When the general direction only of the object can be given and it is sought for, the whole landscape in that direction to the horizon should be divided into sections by imaginary lines, the limits of these sections being bounded between visible landmarks through which the bounding lines are supposed to pass. Each section should be scrutinized little by little until the glass has been passed over every spot. Such search will seldom fail to be successful.
The magnetic bearings of all stations with which another station has worked should be carefully noted and made matter of record in the office directly concerned, so that advantageous use may be made of this data. In addition, guide lines may be established by driving two stakes firmly into the ground and close to each other. A prolongation of a line through the center of one post and marked on the adjacent one will strike the distant station. Under each line should be written the name of the station which it marks.
Signalers upon permanent or semipermanent stations will examine, from time to time, every prominent point within signal distance, to see if communication is attempted therefrom.
Attempts to attract the attention of a known station, in order to be successful, must be persistent. They should never be abandoned until every device has been exhausted, and they should be renewed and continued at different hours of the day and night. It must be remembered that efforts which have failed because the observer's attention has been drawn in another direction may at any other moment be successful if the observing glass chances to bear on the calling signals.
During the whole time that signals are being made to attract attention the calling station must watch closely with the telescope the station called. The watch should not be relaxed until communication is established or the station ordered abandoned.
Codes and Ciphers // _51-00-00-00
A code is a list or collection of arbitrary words or groups of letters to each of which some ordinary word, proper name, phrase, or sentence is assigned for meaning. Ciphers embrace all means whereby writings may be transcribed into secret terms. All ciphers employ some distinct method for transcription, which method is termed a key. In practice the key is usually applied directly in enciphering and reversed in deciphering messages. >> 39-94-01-01_
Codes in Use // _51-00-00-00
The codes of the Western Union and Postal Telegraph companies are examples of well-known codes suited to general commercial use. Besides these, many special codes have been formulated, so as to embody technical expressions especially adapted to use in particular lines of industry. The War Department Code is a military code adapted to the special needs of the military establishment in peace and war. >> 39-94-01-01_
Employing Codes // _51-00-00-00
Codes are primarily intended for economy, but they may also be readily employed to secure secrecy. When used solely for economy, the coded message is said to be plain code; that is, the word or phrases of the message are coded by direct reference to their respective code equivalents. Thus plain code is readily translatable to anyone in possession of a code book. When secrecy is desired, some method of enciphering or key is employed in such a way that only persons in possession of it can in conjunction with the code book decipher it. In such case the message is said to be in cipher code. >> 39-94-01-01_
